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Discovering Statistics Using R
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Discovering Statistics Using R

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March 2012 | 992 pages | SAGE Publications Ltd

Keeping the uniquely humorous and self-deprecating style that has made students across the world fall in love with Andy Field's books, Discovering Statistics Using R takes students on a journey of statistical discovery using R, a free, flexible and dynamically changing software tool for data analysis that is becoming increasingly popular across the social and behavioural sciences throughout the world.

The journey begins by explaining basic statistical and research concepts before a guided tour of the R software environment. Next you discover the importance of exploring and graphing data, before moving onto statistical tests that are the foundations of the rest of the book (for example correlation and regression). You will then stride confidently into intermediate level analyses such as ANOVA, before ending your journey with advanced techniques such as MANOVA and multilevel models. Although there is enough theory to help you gain the necessary conceptual understanding of what you're doing, the emphasis is on applying what you learn to playful and real-world examples that should make the experience more fun than you might expect.

Like its sister textbooks, Discovering Statistics Using R is written in an irreverent style and follows the same ground-breaking structure and pedagogical approach. The core material is augmented by a cast of characters to help the reader on their way, together with hundreds of examples, self-assessment tests to consolidate knowledge, and additional website material for those wanting to learn more.

Given this book's accessibility, fun spirit, and use of bizarre real-world research it should be essential for anyone wanting to learn about statistics using the freely-available R software.

 
Why Is My Evil Lecturer Forcing Me to Learn Statistics?
What will this chapter tell me?

 
What the hell am I doing here? I don't belong here

 
Initial observation: finding something that needs explaining

 
Generating theories and testing them

 
Data collection 1: what to measure

 
Data collection 2: how to measure

 
Analysing data

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Statistics (Well, Sort of)
What will this chapter tell me?

 
Building statistical models

 
Populations and samples

 
Simple statistical models

 
Going beyond the data

 
Using statistical models to test research questions

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
The R Environment
What will this chapter tell me?

 
Before you start

 
Getting started

 
Using R

 
Getting data into R

 
Entering data with R Commander

 
Using other software to enter and edit data

 
Saving Data

 
Manipulating Data

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R Packages Used in This Chapter

 
R Functions Used in This Chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's Tasks

 
Further reading

 
 
Exploring Data with Graphs
What will this chapter tell me?

 
The art of presenting data

 
Packages used in this chapter

 
Introducing ggplot2

 
Graphing relationships: the scatterplot

 
Histograms: a good way to spot obvious problems

 
Boxplots (box-whisker diagrams)

 
Density plots

 
Graphing means

 
Themes and options

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Exploring Assumptions
What will this chapter tell me?

 
What are assumptions?

 
Assumptions of parametric data

 
Packages used in this chapter

 
The assumption of normality

 
Testing whether a distribution is normal

 
Testing for homogeneity of variance

 
Correcting problems in the data

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
 
Correlation
What will this chapter tell me?

 
Looking at relationships

 
How do we measure relationships?

 
Data entry for correlation analysis

 
Bivariate correlation

 
Partial correlation

 
Comparing correlations

 
Calculating the effect size

 
How to report correlation coefficents

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
 
Regression
What will this chapter tell me?

 
An Introduction to regression

 
Packages used in this chapter

 
General procedure for regression in R

 
Interpreting a simple regression

 
Multiple regression: the basics

 
How accurate is my regression model?

 
How to do multiple regression using R Commander and R

 
Testing the accuracy of your regression model

 
Robust regression: bootstrapping

 
How to report multiple regression

 
Categorical predictors and multiple regression

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Logistic Regression
What will this chapter tell me?

 
Background to logistic regression

 
What are the principles behind logistic regression?

 
Assumptions and things that can go wrong

 
Packages used in this chapter

 
Binary logistic regression: an example that will make you feel eel

 
How to report logistic regression

 
Testing assumptions: another example

 
Predicting several categories: multinomial logistic regression

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Comparing Two Means
What will this chapter tell me?

 
Packages used in this chapter

 
Looking at differences

 
The t-test

 
The independent t-test

 
The dependent t-test

 
Between groups or repeated measures?

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Comparing Several Means: ANOVA (GLM 1)
What will this chapter tell me?

 
The theory behind ANOVA

 
Assumptions of ANOVA

 
Planned contrasts

 
Post hoc procedures

 
One-way ANOVA using R

 
Calculating the effect size

 
Reporting results from one-way independent ANOVA

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Analysis of Covariance, ANCOVA (GLM 2)
What will this chapter tell me?

 
What is ANCOVA?

 
Assumptions and issues in ANCOVA

 
ANCOVA using R

 
Robust ANCOVA

 
Calculating the effect size

 
Reporting results

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Factorial ANOVA (GLM 3)
What will this chapter tell me?

 
Theory of factorial ANOVA (independant design)

 
Factorial ANOVA as regression

 
Two-Way ANOVA: Behind the scenes

 
Factorial ANOVA using R

 
Interpreting interaction graphs

 
Robust factorial ANOVA

 
Calculating effect sizes

 
Reporting the results of two-way ANOVA

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Repeated-Measures Designs (GLM 4)
What will this chapter tell me?

 
Introduction to repeated-measures designs

 
Theory of one-way repeated-measures ANOVA

 
One-way repeated measures designs using R

 
Effect sizes for repeated measures designs

 
Reporting one-way repeated measures designs

 
Factorisal repeated measures designs

 
Effect Sizes for factorial repeated measures designs

 
Reporting the results from factorial repeated measures designs

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Mixed Designs (GLM 5)
What will this chapter tell me?

 
Mixed designs

 
What do men and women look for in a partner?

 
Entering and exploring your data

 
Mixed ANOVA

 
Mixed designs as a GLM

 
Calculating effect sizes

 
Reporting the results of mixed ANOVA

 
Robust analysis for mixed designs

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Non-Parametric Tests
What will this chapter tell me?

 
When to use non-parametric tests

 
Packages used in this chapter

 
Comparing two independent conditions: the Wilcoxon rank-sum test

 
Comparing two related conditions: the Wilcoxon signed-rank test

 
Differences between several independent groups: the Kruskal-Wallis test

 
Differences between several related groups: Friedman's ANOVA

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)
What will this chapter tell me?

 
When to use MANOVA

 
Introduction: similarities and differences to ANOVA

 
Theory of MANOVA

 
Practical issues when conducting MANOVA

 
MANOVA using R

 
Robust MANOVA

 
Reporting results from MANOVA

 
Following up MANOVA with discriminant analysis

 
Reporting results from discriminant analysis

 
Some final remarks

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Exploratory Factor Analysis
What will this chapter tell me?

 
When to use factor analysis

 
Factors

 
Research example

 
Running the analysis with R Commander

 
Running the analysis with R

 
Factor scores

 
How to report factor analysis

 
Reliability analysis

 
Reporting reliability analysis

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R Packages Used in This Chapter

 
R Functions Used in This Chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Categorical Data
What will this chapter tell me?

 
Packages used in this chapter

 
Analysing categorical data

 
Theory of Analysing Categorical Data

 
Assumptions of the chi-square test

 
Doing the chi-square test using R

 
Several categorical variables: loglinear analysis

 
Assumptions in loglinear analysis

 
Loglinear analysis using R

 
Following up loglinear analysis

 
Effect sizes in loglinear analysis

 
Reporting the results of loglinear analysis

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Multilevel Linear Models
What will this chapter tell me?

 
Hierarchical data

 
Theory of multilevel linear models

 
The multilevel model

 
Some practical issues

 
Multilevel modelling on R

 
Growth models

 
How to report a multilevel model

 
What have I discovered about statistics?

 
R packages used in this chapter

 
R functions used in this chapter

 
Key terms that I've discovered

 
Smart Alex's tasks

 
Further reading

 
Interesting real research

 
 
Epilogue: Life After Discovering Statistics
 
Troubleshooting R
 
Glossary
Appendix

 
Table of the standard normal distribution

 
Critical Values of the t-Distribution

 
Critical Values of the F-Distribution

 
Critical Values of the chi-square Distribution

 
 
References

Supplements

Click for online resources

Companion Website to accompany Discovering Statistics Using R

Here is the book that will make any student with even a passing interest in statistics ask themselves why bother about numbers and how to extract the best out of them. The authors rattle on excitedly for nearly 1000 pages about questions that deal not only with how to use R package, statistics and social science methods, they make the frequently dull reading on stats into a dedication to critical thinking. Highly commendable!

Mr Timofey Agarin
Politics, Int'l Studies & Philosophy, Queen's University Belfast
January 13, 2013

Andy Field's previous book "Discovering Statistics Using SPSS" has been consistently the most popular with our postgraduate health and social care students undertaking a research methods and statistics course.

As before, Andy Field's style is beyond irreverent ("If you are the sort of person who obsesses about p-values, then you can use the rcorr() function and p yourself with excitement at the outout it produces", pp 220-1). But then, one thing I have defineitely learnt from his SPSS book is that you cannot predict what writing style will work for a student and make the subject accessible and memorable. It may not be my choice of writing style for a textbook, but I will continue to recommend his books because they do the job.

However, if there is one major drawback to this book, it is the sheer bulk at 992 pages. It would be suitable for a statistics course lasting a whole semester or longer as it covers a huge range of topics. Despite the jokey style, it is no light introduction but rather a quite comprehensive journey through statistics and R. Indeed, Andy Field says in the introduction that his aim is to make this "the only statistics textbook anyone ever needs to buy"!

Readers will learn about statistics at the same time as using R for calculation and R as a programming language. I suspect this may require too much information to be stored and recalled at one time by the reader, but if one wanted to learn just statistics or just R, there would be more suitable focussed books.

The graphics chapter uses the advanced package ggplot2 from the very beginning, which I found surprising as some of the low-level functions are easier to get started on (there are fewer aspects to go wrong!). But this could motivate students by giving them high-quality graphics from the beginning.

Holding back discussion of categorical data until chapter 18 would be frustrating for most of my students, maybe not so in psychology (Field's field) where there are lots of scales as outcomes.

Some of the time the examples (of which there are many) use the R Commander graphical user interface, which could be one thing too many for readers to absorb.

A more interactive website with self-assessment content would be exciting! This could include R on the server so that pieces of code could be submitted by readers to get feedback on their understanding of the language. However, I realise that protecting this against malicious or just unfortunate code is quite a challenge.

I will definitely recommend this book to students interested in using R while they are learning stats, but with some caveats about its ease of use compared to a classic stats textbook and a simpler R introduction, of which there are several online.

Mr Robert Grant
Faculty of Health & Social Care Scienc, St George's, University of London
January 8, 2013

Many good examples and student resources. Love the use of ggplot2 and Rcmdr - both great packages.

Dr Melinda Higgins
Nell H Woodruff Sch Of Nursing, Emory University
December 26, 2012

Too advanced for the undergraduate students.

Mr Andy Davies
School of Education, Brighton University
December 20, 2012

Overall, I was positively impressed with this book. Andy Field has managed to transfer successfully his engaging (if somewhat discursive) style to the R environment. This can be very helpful for students who are unfamiliar with both statistics and R. I find his approach to R a bit heavier than absolutely necessary, making use of specialty libraries, complex commands, ggplot etc. It seems that the book is more like "how to use R to do what you did with other means" rather than immersing students to the R way of thinking about statistics and doing things. I would have stayed with a simpler approach, first making the most of the commonly available options and stressing the unity over structures and specifications. Field's approach might make the initial R experience a bit more frightening and discouraging, but admittedly it has at least two clear advantages: First, it lets him get through all of the material in "Discovering statistics..." in the same way as with SPSS, establishing common ground; and second, it gives a lot of information for future reference and more advanced analyses to students who are not too discouraged. Hopefully most students will be able to withstand the complexities of ggplot and appreciate the immense flexibility. Overall, this is a great book, obviously the result of a lot of work, and a solid resource for students to get a kick-start in both statistics and R.

I have already recommended the book to a class of graduate and doctoral students in which I lecture on R. I am also going to recommend it to my undergraduate class on introductory statistics. As there are no other books I know of that start at the beginning of both statistics and R, and because I have designed my introductory statistics course around R, I will consider and most likely recommend it for the next academic year as core textbook.

Dr Athanassios Protopapas
History & Philosophy of Science, University of Athens
December 16, 2012

The book is somewhat less useful for those who choose not to base the course around R commander (the software wrapper used in the text). Nevertheless, it is quite good and directs the reader to the means to accomplish nearly anything they would normally run into.

Professor Adam Moore
Psychology, The University of Edinburgh
December 16, 2012

I like this.
Comprehensive and juicy.
Good level for our students.

Professor Michel Chaudron
Department of Computer Science, Leiden University
December 14, 2012

This is a very useful resource, very comprehensive, detailed, and illustrated with countless graphs, pictures and tables. Although the concept of the book is very broad (from introduction to statistics to the very details of "R") it is easy to read, and working with the book is fun (!).

Professor Jens Knigge
Institut für Musikwissenschaft und Musikpädagogik, Staatl. Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgart
December 12, 2012

The book is a very thorough and well written alternative to the SPSS version. However, it lacks the accessibility that makes the SPSS version stand out. My hope was that Andy Field would be the first to make R as accessible to students of statistics as SPSS. The book is the best effort I know off, but still falls short in comparison with the SPSS version. Hopefully, future versions will cause me to switch to R.

Dr Martijn Goudbeek
Communication and Information Sciences, Tilburg University
December 11, 2012

R can be rather cryptic. Andy Fields' book makes it possible to approach this software gradually from the scratch and in a not frightening way, repeating statistics at the same time. A very accessible book- I am going to use it for my course on introduction to data analysis.

Ms Carolin Schneider
Department of Psychology, University of Trier
December 11, 2012

Sample Materials & Chapters

Chapter One